Old Dai Opera

Later, the performers developed a new art form that blended poetry with song and dance—known as "Twelve Horses." This "Twelve Horses" performance is widely regarded as the foundation upon which Dai opera eventually emerged. Early works such as "Ya Sheng Xi" and "Gao Han," though still somewhat稚嫩 and粗糙, already showcased the雏形 of what would become Dai opera. Around 1880, Yingjiang’s local chieftain, Dao Yingting, commissioned Dai intellectuals to translate classical Chinese operas like Peking Opera, Sichuan Opera, and Yunnan Opera into the Dai language, bringing these translated scripts to life on stage. By the early 1910s, Dao Anren—a son of Dao Yingting who had just returned from studying in Japan—established the first professional Dai opera troupe. To strengthen the art form, he sent members to Tengchong and Kunming to learn traditional Yunnan Opera techniques, while also inviting renowned Yunnan Opera artists to teach in Yingjiang. As a result, Dai opera was profoundly influenced by Han Chinese theatrical traditions, leading to significant changes and improvements in both its content and artistic style. Under this influence, Dai opera began incorporating traditional Han Chinese instruments such as gongs, drums, and cymbals. Male actors increasingly adopted costumes reminiscent of ancient Han Chinese plays, while female roles retained their distinctive Dai attire. Meanwhile, the singing styles continued to reflect the unique musical characteristics of the Dai people.With these innovations, Dai opera performances evolved from informal settings like fields and village squares to formal theater stages. As a result, the art form experienced remarkable growth, initially spreading from the regions of Danxi and Gan崖 before gradually gaining popularity among Dai communities across Dehong Prefecture—including counties like Yingjiang, Luxi, Ruili, Lianghe, and Longchuan—as well as areas in Baoshan, Tengchong, and Longling counties, where the Dai ethnic group is densely concentrated.

Dai Opera is one of Yunnan's unique ethnic minority theatrical genres, widely performed in counties such as Luxi, Yingjiang, Ruili, Longchuan, and Lianghe within Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture, as well as in certain Dai-populated areas of Baoshan City.

Dai opera originated from Dai ethnic group's narrative-based song-and-dance performances and Buddhist scripture recitations, later incorporating artistic elements from Dian opera and shadow puppetry, gradually evolving into a relatively complete theatrical form.

During the late Qing Dynasty, the Yingjiang Gan Ya Tusi Office organized Dehong's first-ever Dai opera troupe. Soon after, Dai theater spread to other regions of Dehong, and within a short time, all ten Tusi administrations in Dehong established their own Dai opera troupes and built dedicated performance halls. At the same time, Dai theater began to trickle down from the Tusi courts into local communities, giving rise to numerous grassroots Dai drama groups. After the founding of New China, Dai theater experienced a new era of growth. In 1960, the first professional performing group—the Luxi County Dai Opera Troupe—was established, and by 1962, it had expanded into the Dehong Prefecture Dai Opera Troupe.

Initially, in Dai opera, male actors playing female roles donned traditional Dai women’s attire, while the costumes and movement patterns of both male and female characters closely resembled those seen in Yunnan Opera and Peking Opera. During performances, actors would take three steps forward to sing or perform their movements, then retreat three steps to listen to prompts from backstage. Between vocal sections, the music was accompanied by dynamic percussion instruments like gongs and drums. Over time, the singing styles evolved gradually into two fundamental vocal modes: the "Han Hun" (male style) and the "Han Lang" (female style). Additionally, Dai folk melodies were widely incorporated into both the vocal and instrumental compositions. Performances now feature elaborate Dai costumes, with choreography that seamlessly blends the graceful steps of traditional Dai folk dances. Meanwhile, the musical ensemble has expanded to include iconic instruments such as the bamboo flute, erhu, and elephant-foot drum, further enhancing the piece’s rich ethnic flavor.

Some traditional Dai opera pieces are adapted from Dai folk tales, narrative epics, or Buddhist scriptures, such as "Xiang Meng," "The Thousand-Petal Lotus," and "Lang Tui Han." Others have been translated or adapted from Han Chinese theatrical works, including "Zhuangzi Tests His Wife," "Ganlu Temple," and "Yang Family’s Heroic Daughters." Since the 1960s, a wealth of new plays—like "E’er and Sangluo," "Haihan," and "Deep Affection in the Bamboo House"—have been carefully refined, reimagined, and staged by Dai theater troupes. In 1962, "E’er and Sangluo" made a stunning debut at the Southwest Regional Ethnic Minority Drama Festival, earning widespread acclaim and even being hailed as "the Pearl of Southeast Asia." Beyond professional troupes like the Dehong Prefecture Dai Opera Troupe, nearly every sizable Dai village also boasts its own amateur performance groups.

Dai opera is one of the art forms deeply cherished by the Dai people of Dehong Prefecture, as well as by the closely living De'ang and Achang ethnic groups. It represents the long-standing artistic legacy of Dai culture and is celebrated as a brilliant gem of art that has earned fame throughout Southeast Asia.

Tracing the origins

Dai opera originated in Yingjiang and has since become popular in parts of Dehong Prefecture and Baoshan region, where Dai ethnic groups are concentrated. To this day, it boasts a history spanning over a century. Tracing its roots inevitably leads us back to traditions like "Han Ban Tao," "Mao Shao Dui Chang," "Shao San Lang," "Bu Ten La," and "Twelve Horses." Singers would spontaneously craft lyrics from their observations of everyday life and personal experiences, creating the melodic style known as "Han Ban Tao." In the Dai region, it’s customary for young people to use folk songs as a way to connect with potential partners. During these playful exchanges—where young men and women test each other’s feelings while expressing mutual admiration—they engage in the call-and-response duets called "Mao Shao Dui Chang." Over time, performers refined this style further by incorporating expressive gestures and movements, eventually evolving into the more elaborate "Bu Ten La," which now features both spoken and sung elements, complete with music, dance, and even a paper-mache puppet depicting a cow. This vivid performance often portrays an elderly grandfather and grandson working in the fields, while the grandmother delivers meals—a lively trio of characters brought to life through song and movement.

Later, the performers created a new art form that combined poetry with song and dance—known as "Twelve Horses." This "Twelve Horses" performance is widely regarded as the foundation upon which Dai opera eventually emerged. Early works such as "Ya Sheng Xi" and "Gao Han," though still somewhat稚嫩 and粗糙, already showcased the雏形 of what would become Dai opera. Around 1880, Yingjiang’s local chieftain, Dao Yingting, commissioned Dai intellectuals to translate classical Chinese operas like Peking Opera, Sichuan Opera, and Yunnan Opera into the Dai language, bringing these translated scripts to life on stage. By the early 1910s, Dao Anren—a son of Dao Yingting who had just returned from studying in Japan—established the first professional Dai opera troupe. To strengthen the art form, he sent members to Tengchong and Kunming to learn traditional Yunnan Opera techniques, while also inviting renowned Yunnan Opera artists to teach in Yingjiang. As a result, Dai opera was profoundly influenced by Han Chinese theatrical traditions, leading to significant changes and improvements in both its content and artistic style. Under this influence, Dai opera began incorporating traditional Han Chinese instruments such as gongs, drums, and cymbals. Male actors increasingly adopted costumes reminiscent of ancient Han Chinese plays, while female roles retained their distinctive Dai attire. Meanwhile, the singing styles continued to reflect the unique musical characteristics of the Dai people. With these innovations, Dai opera performances evolved from informal settings like fields and village squares to formal theater stages. As a result, the art form experienced remarkable growth, initially spreading from the regions of Danxi and Gan崖 before gradually gaining popularity among Dai communities across Dehong Prefecture—including counties like Yingjiang, Luxi, Ruili, Lianghe, and Longchuan—as well as areas in Baoshan, Tengchong, and Longling counties, where the Dai ethnic group is densely concentrated.

The new historical period for Dai opera began after the founding of New China. In 1960, Dai artists, armed with fresh artistic perspectives, revolutionized Dai opera by reimagining its repertoire, introducing a directorial system, standardizing stage performances, and enriching the vocal styles. Their bold efforts culminated in a triumphant production of "E'nu and Sangluo." By 1980, when Dai opera resumed performances, the focus shifted toward rectifying the tendency toward Han Chinese-style theatrical elements—such as rigidly adopting Dian Opera’s percussion instruments and costumes—and instead emphasizing the unique ethnic identity of Dai opera. This approach helped establish Dai opera as a vibrant, colorful cultural treasure deeply cherished during Dai festivals and gatherings. In 1987, Dai opera made its international debut, performing in Myanmar. Each show drew over 10,000 enthusiastic spectators, marking an unprecedented success. Later, in 1992, the first group of Dai opera students was sent to study at Beijing’s School of Drama. Today, these graduates have become the next generation of Dai opera performers, carrying forward the art form. What’s more, they’ve taken Dai opera to new heights by adapting the classic tale of "Stealing the Immortal Herb" into "Re Ximuo," adding dynamic fight scenes to the traditionally song- and dance-centric genre. Meanwhile, while traditional Han Chinese opera struggles to maintain its popularity, Dai opera continues to thrive across Dehong, reaching every corner of the region and winning the unwavering admiration of the local Dai community.

Performance Highlights

Action

Dai opera performances traditionally rely heavily on singing, with characters expressing joy, anger, sorrow, and happiness through simple yet expressive movements—such as advancing three steps, retreating three steps, or portraying scenes like horseback riding, martial combat, and even boat travel. Over time, several established performance conventions have emerged. After the founding of New China, the establishment of professional theater troupes significantly boosted the cultivation and training of artistic talent across all areas. As a result, advancements in scriptwriting, directing, acting, music, costumes, and makeup have far surpassed those of the past, marking a remarkable leap forward in the art form.

Singing style

The vocal style is primarily rooted in the "Xidiao," a melody that has evolved from traditional Dai folk songs. It can be divided into two main categories: the Yu mode, reserved exclusively for male characters, and the Zhi mode, tailored specifically for female roles. Over time, these modes further diversified into substyles such as the Xiaosheng腔, Laosheng腔, Caowang腔 (Jing腔), and Nu Beiqiang. The Yu mode is predominantly popular in the regions of Yingjiang, Lianghe, and Longchuan, while the Zhi mode is mainly heard in Luxi County. Performances typically feature unaccompanied singing, accompanied only by percussion instruments that enhance the dance movements and create an evocative atmosphere. Following the establishment of the Luxi County Dai Opera Troupe, the ensemble further enriched its vocal repertoire by incorporating elements from Mangshi Chengzi Mountain Songs, Mangshi Badi Mountain Songs, Ruili Mountain Songs, Peacock Songs, and recitation-style melodies—drawn directly from traditional Dai folk music traditions. This expansion has significantly broadened the diversity and depth of the troupe's musical offerings.

Accompaniment

Traditional Dai opera is traditionally performed solely with percussion accompaniment, often featuring the *tanggu* drum (the lead instrument) along with other instruments such as the large gong, cymbals, and bowl gongs—known in Dian opera as "dongzi gongs." In some cases, the percussion ensemble from Dian opera is even combined with traditional Dai folk instruments like the elephant-foot drum and gongs. Recently, the Luxi County Dai Opera Troupe began experimenting with silk-and-bamboo music, using the *banhu* fiddle as the lead instrument and incorporating Dai-specific instruments like the gourd lute. However, most performance groups today still rely exclusively on traditional percussion music.

Subject matter

Dai opera evolved by refining the region's diverse traditional dances while incorporating performance techniques from Han Chinese theatrical traditions, resulting in a style that boasts distinctly ethnic characteristics. Dai opera features a rich repertoire with a wide range of themes and subjects. These include short musical dramas that directly depict the daily lives and customs of the Dai people, as well as plays adapted from Dai folk legends and narrative poems. Additionally, there are over a hundred productions based on classic Chinese chapter-based novels or transplanted from Han Chinese operas. Since the founding of New China, a number of modern plays reflecting contemporary life have been created and staged, such as "The Wedding Day," "On the Border," and "The Fate of Jinhu Lake."

Music

Dai opera music is an essential component of Dai theater and serves as one of the key factors that have earned Dai drama the title of "Pearl of Southeast Asia." Rich in ethnic characteristics, it exudes a delicate, elegant, and deeply human charm—qualities largely untouched by the musical influences of other theatrical traditions. The Dai people are devout Buddhists, and when monks chant scriptures for their followers, they do so in a highly recitative-style singing form. This monastic chanting tradition has gained widespread popularity among devotees due to its beautifully crafted poetry, rhythmic cadence, and melodious delivery. Over time, the melodies used in these chants gradually stabilized, giving rise to widely recognized tunes such as "Han Huoling," "Han Shu Duan," and "Hou Dalang." These melodic patterns eventually merged and evolved with traditional Chinese folk songs, ultimately laying the foundation for the basic musical framework (or "theater tune") of Dai opera in the 1840s in Yingjiang.

Traditional repertoire includes adaptations of Dai folk legends and narrative poems, such as "Pahan," "Thousand-Petal Lotus," "Red Lotus Treasure," "A Nuan Hai Dong," "Lang Jin Bu," "The Seven Sisters," and "King Sinan." There are also adaptations from Han Chinese opera and classical novels, like "The Three Saints Return to Heaven," "Wang Mang Seizes the Throne," "Three Expeditions to Hedong," "Mu Kezhai," "Flower Fruit Mountain," and "Great Uproar at the Peach Banquet." Additionally, plays based on historical tales and myths, such as "Mu Ying’s First Southern Campaign" and "Zhang Si Jie," have been staged. More recently, modern dramas like "Bo Yan San Hui Tou," "Bo Guo Shi’s Wedding," "Golden Lake Destiny," "On the Borderline," and "The Three Clowns" have been created. Among the most influential productions are "Bu Tun La," "Tao He Sheng," "E'erbing Yu Sangluo," and "Yan Zuo Nong." The Dehong Prefecture Cultural Troupe’s Dai Opera Team, along with cultural troupes from all counties under Dehong’s jurisdiction, serve as professional Dai opera performance groups. Moreover, nearly every sizable Dai village boasts its own amateur performing group. Renowned actors include Lang Junmei and others.

Development stage

Overall, Dai opera music can be broadly divided into three developmental stages: First, the single-melody stage, which lasted until around the 1920s. During this period, the music for Dai opera featured a single, unchanging melody running throughout the entire performance, complemented by percussion instruments. Occasionally, a few mountain-song melodies or the "Twelve Horse" tune were incorporated into specific plays. Second, the gradual evolution from a single melody into distinct male and female vocal styles, spanning from the early 1920s to the 1950s. In this phase, two primary vocal styles—male and female—dominated the opera, alternating seamlessly across the production. Percussion remained a key element, interspersed between vocal sections, with occasional hints of mountain-song motifs. Finally, the stage of innovative musical arrangement and orchestration. By 1960, county-level professional Dai opera troupes were established in Yingjiang and Luxi counties, followed by the founding of the Dehong Dai Opera Troupe in 1962. Since then, Dai opera has achieved significant artistic advancements, including the introduction of preludes and epilogues to enhance storytelling. Additionally, composers have creatively adapted traditional Dai folk songs to suit varying character traits and plot developments. While percussion still draws heavily from Yunnan opera traditions, it is now often blended with authentic Dai folk percussion techniques. Musically, the ensemble primarily features Han Chinese folk instruments, though these are frequently combined with traditional Dai instruments to create a unique, culturally rich sound.

Legacy significance

Since the 1960s, a large number of plays—such as "E'nu and Sangluo," "Haihan," and "Deep Affection in the Bamboo House"—have been adapted, reworked, and newly created for performance by Dai theater. In 1962, "E'nu and Sangluo" made a sensational impact when it was showcased at the Southwest Regional Ethnic Minority Drama Festival, earning the title "The Pearl of Southeast Asia." Beyond professional troupes like the Dehong Prefecture Dai Theater Group, nearly every sizable Dai village also boasts its own amateur performing groups.

Nowadays, Dai opera is primarily enjoyed by older audiences, while young people show little interest in it, often because they can’t understand the language. As a result, the challenges of preserving and passing down this traditional art form are becoming increasingly apparent.

The country places great emphasis on the preservation of intangible cultural heritage. On May 20, 2006, Dai Opera was officially approved by the State Council and included in the first batch of the National Intangible Cultural Heritage List.

Opera genres

Popular in the Dai and Jingpo ethnic areas of counties such as Yingjiang, Luxi, Lianghe, Longchuan, and Ruili in Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan, as well as in Baoshan, Tengchong, and Longling counties within the Baoshan region, Dai opera has evolved from traditional Dai folk songs and dances like "Mao Shao Dui Chang" (male-female duet singing), "Shua Bai Ma" (a festive dance performed to bless households during holidays), and "Yinhai" (a cow-driven dance-drama). Drawing inspiration from Yunnan Flower Lantern performances, Dai opera developed into more structured forms featuring simple plots and characters—such as the "Twelve Horses" and "Bu Tun La" (the Old Farmer Plowing)—alongside short musical dramas. Over time, it incorporated elements from Dian Opera, including its repertoire, acting styles, and percussion techniques, gradually maturing into a relatively complete theatrical form. Before the Xinhai Revolution, the local chieftain of Gan Ya (now part of Yingjiang County) assembled over 30 talented folk artists and intellectuals to establish the first professional Dai opera troupe. The vocal style primarily draws from the "Xi Diao," a melody that originated as a transformation of traditional Dai folk songs. This "Xi Diao" is divided into two main modes: the Yu mode, predominantly heard in Yingjiang, Lianghe, and Longchuan regions, and the Zhi mode, more common in Luxi. In towns like Mangshi, the Yu mode serves as the male vocal style, while the Zhi mode is used for female roles. Later, additional vocal styles emerged, such as the Xiao Sheng style for young male leads, the Lao Sheng style for older male characters, and the Cao Wang style (also known as the Jing style) for comedic or villainous roles. In 1961, the Luxi County Dai Opera Troupe was officially formed, further enriching the repertoire by integrating popular Dai folk melodies from Mangshi Chengzi Mountain Songs, Mangshi Damizi Mountain Songs, Ruili Mountain Songs, Peacock Songs, and recitation-style tunes. These additions significantly broadened the vocal palette of Dai opera. Traditionally, Dai opera performances relied solely on percussion instruments, typically consisting of the Tang Drum (as the lead instrument), large gongs, cymbals, and bowl-shaped gongs (similar to the "Dong" gong used in Dian Opera). Occasionally, percussion ensembles would blend these traditional instruments with those from Dian Opera, alongside indigenous Dai instruments like the elephant-foot drum and clapper gongs. However, most performing groups today still prefer to accompany their shows exclusively with percussion.

Dehong's Dai Opera

Amid the lush green bamboo groves and under the towering banyan trees, young Dai men and women don their distinctive traditional attire, beating the elephant-foot drums and ringing the gong-like *mangluo* as they gracefully dance—truly a mesmerizing sight in Dehong Dai Autonomous Prefecture!

Located geographically in western Yunnan, Dehong Dai Autonomous Prefecture sits along the Nujiang River. This region served as a vital link for cultural and trade exchanges between China’s Sichuan, Guizhou, and Yunnan provinces—and further extended through Myanmar and India—making it a key node on the ancient Southern Silk Road. It was also a vibrant crossroads where Central Plains culture mingled with Southeast Asian and South Asian influences. While geographically distant from the Yangtze River basin, Dai Opera, despite not being part of the Yangtze River region’s traditional theatrical traditions, bears significant artistic influences from Peking Opera, Dian Opera, and shadow puppetry. In this sense, Dai Opera can be viewed as a local ethnic genre that emerged as part of the broader evolution of Yangtze River–based theater forms into western Yunnan, making it worth briefly highlighting here.

Dai ethnic group

The Dai people are descendants of the ancient Ailao people. Chinese historical records have referred to the Dai at different times as "Ailao," "Shan," "Wu Man," "Bai Man," "Baiyi," "Jin Chi," "Hei Chi," "Bai Yi," "Bo Yi," and "Bai Yi," among others.[1] The Dai language spoken in Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture belongs to the Northern sub-dialect of the Greater Tai branch of the Thai language family. In its early days, the Dai people used the Dai Nha script (one of seven distinct Dai writing systems), which proved highly advantageous for the creation, performance, and dissemination of Dai theater. The Dai are a people known for their love of singing and dancing—just mention it, and they come alive with enthusiasm!

When it comes to dance, most people immediately think of the Elephant-Feet Drum Dance and the Peacock Dance. The Elephant-Feet Drum resembles an elephant’s foot—its wooden body is covered with hide—and comes in four sizes: mini, short, medium, and long. Typically, dancers use their fists, palms, and fingers to rhythmically strike the drum while simultaneously moving gracefully to its beat. The Elephant-Feet Drum Dance includes variations such as the Big Drum Dance, Long Drum Dance, Double-Sided Drum Dance, Medium Drum Dance, and Horizontal Drum Dance. Speaking of the Peacock Dance, many may have witnessed the breathtaking handless Peacock Dance performed by the contemporary Dai ethnic minority dancer Dao Meilan. This iconic dance encompasses several styles, including the Golden Peacock Dance, Green Peacock Dance, Peacock Ensemble Dance, Peacock Princess Dance, Drunken Peacock Dance, and even a mesmerizing version where dancers mimic peacocks reflected in water. There’s also the Peacock Dance performed while wearing an ornate peacock mask. Beyond these celebrated dances, there are numerous others that vividly capture daily life, such as the Rice Planting Dance, Water-Carrying Dance, Boat-Paddling Dance, Drunken Dance, Flower Garland Dance, and even lively animal-themed performances like the Elephant Dance, Monkey Dance, Butterfly Dance, Golden Deer Dance, Snake Dance, Tiger Dance, Chicken Dance, Bear Dance, White Sheep Dance, Yellow Cow Dance, Leopard Dance, Great Peng Bird Dance, Fish Dance, and Horse Dance. Moreover, there are also many traditional dances deeply tied to Buddhist rituals and offerings to deities and spirits.

Tai Ethnic Group Folklore

In Dai folklore, there was a magical dancer named "Sa La Mu Ga" (the Dance Master), who could dance not only on the ground but also gracefully on water, atop drums, and even in the branches of trees. His mesmerizing movements were said to inspire birds to sing with joy and make flowers and foliage sway softly. Legend has it that all Dai dances were passed down through him.

Born in Dianli County in the 1920s, Mao Xiang was a gifted "Muga"—a master dancer—known among the Dai people as the "Sala Nong Mengmao" (Dianli Master). In 1957, he traveled to Moscow with Bai Wenfen, a Hui ethnic minority actress, to participate in the World Festival of Youth and Students. Together, they performed a mesmerizing duet featuring the Peacock Dance, earning them a silver medal. Over the years, Mao Xiang shared his profound expertise by performing and teaching dance artistry at prestigious institutions such as the Central Nationalities Song and Dance Ensemble, the Baoshan Regional Cultural Troupe, the Dehong Prefecture Song and Dance Troupe, and local cultural centers. A dedicated and exceptional folk dancer, he was often compared to the graceful, soaring wings of a peacock. Tragically, he passed away prematurely on August 24, 1986, due to illness, leaving behind the beautiful legacy of his peacock-like dance. Yet, the vibrant spirit of his iconic peacock movements continues to thrive across Dai lands, passing down through generations and ensuring that this timeless art form lives on forever.

In the lyrics of Dai opera, the peacock is often used as a symbol of happiness, auspiciousness, nobility, beauty, kindness, and the triumph over evil. The Dai opera *Haihan* (scripted by Xiao Dexun and Tao Zengyi) tells the story of Haihan, the beloved son of King Jingshe, who falls deeply in love with Princess Yubang of Jingshe. Enraged by his rivalry for Yubang, King Gelangfeng launches an attack on Jingshe—but ultimately suffers defeat. In retaliation, Gelangfeng plots a treacherous scheme to capture and execute Haihan. Refusing to marry Gelangfeng against her will, Yubang chooses instead to throw herself into the river, taking her own life.

The Dai opera "E'ang and Sangluo" tells the story of the handsome young merchant Sangluo, who arrives in Menggen on business. Attracted by his charm, the village girls dress up beautifully and head to the market to catch a glimpse of him. It is here that Sangluo and the girls perform the iconic Peacock Dance together. "E'ang and Sangluo" is a tragic love story: though the male and female protagonists deeply cherish each other, their union is fiercely opposed by their feudal-minded parents. In the heartbreaking conclusion, Sangluo learns that his beloved E'ang has been rejected by her own mother—and worse still, she suffers humiliation and abuse before being forced to return home. Tragically, during her journey back, E'ang unexpectedly loses her unborn child and later dies upon reaching home. Consumed by grief, Sangluo collapses beside her body, draws his sword, and takes his own life. After their deaths, the two lovers are transformed into a pair of majestic peacocks, forever dancing gracefully beneath the towering green banyan tree.

In addition to musical accompaniment, the Elephant-Feet Dance and Peacock Dance are often combined with poetry, which is why many folk dancers also serve as folk singers. Among the Dai people, folk singers are known as "Zanhā," while in Dehong they are called "Hāluán Hōng" or "Hǎn Mén Dāng." Notable examples of narrative epic poems that originated from folk singers include "E'nuo yǔ Sāngluò," "Thousand-Petal Lotus," and "Yánzhuō Nòng."

Mythological Drama

"Thousand-Petal Lotus" is a mythological drama. The story unfolds as follows: During one of his royal outings, the king accidentally injures the foot of the elephant he’s riding—his majestic mount—with a stone, thanks to the young farmer Yan Kun. Enraged, the king orders Yan Kun’s execution. However, at the pleading of his loyal ministers, the king spares Yan Kun but sentences him instead to embark on a perilous quest: to find the mythical Thousand-Petal Lotus as penance for his crime. Guided by a water-dwelling immortal, Yan Kun endures countless hardships and finally locates the elusive Thousand-Petal Lotus—only to discover that the lotus is none other than seven celestial nymphs who descended from heaven itself. Moved by Yan Kun’s unwavering determination, honesty, and kindness, the seven fairies agree to meet the king. But when the king lays eyes on the radiant nymphs, his true nature reveals itself—he coldly reneges on his promise, plotting not only to execute Yan Kun but also to forcibly marry the enchanting maidens. In response, the seven nymphs unleash their divine powers, stunning the king into unconsciousness—and ultimately causing his death. With the treacherous ruler gone, the kingdom’s people unanimously crown the brave, virtuous, and extraordinarily skilled Yan Kun as their new king. From that moment onward, peace prevails, and the lives of the people flourish beyond measure.

In this play, during the scene where Yan Kun meets the Seven Fairies, there’s also a lively moment featuring all the fairies bathing in the pool and joyfully performing the Peacock Dance.

In the influential Dai folk tale "Zhao Shutun," there are also seven peacock princesses who gently alight upon the Golden Lake, resembling seven lotus flowers floating gracefully on the water. Among them, Nannu, the maiden whom Prince Zhao Shutun deeply loves, is none other than the youngest of the seven princesses.

The folk singer's rap style later evolved into a relatively simpler performance format, "transitioning from a single performer delivering rap in the third person to an emerging theatrical form where multiple artists sing in the first person" (Qu Liu-yi, *Chinese Minority Nationality Theatre*). By the late Qing dynasty, Zanhā had moved from seated performances to staged productions, largely influenced by the conventions of Peking Opera and Dian Opera, ultimately giving rise to a unique theatrical style that seamlessly blends singing, dancing, and drama.

During the Tongzhi era, Shang He, a native of Ganyan in Yunnan, wrote the Dai opera script *Xiang Meng* in Old Tai script. By the Guangxu period, Dao Yingting, the local chieftain of Ganyan, had composed another Dai opera titled *Mu Ying Zheng Nan*. Meanwhile, another Ganyan chieftain, Dao Anren, organized the creation of additional Dai opera scripts such as *Lang Hua Tie*, *Long Gong Bao*, and *Lang Gao Han*. Together, these contributions played a significant role in advancing the development of Dai opera. Early Dai opera performances were highly song-and-dance oriented. For instance, when performing *Twelve Horses*, six male and six female actors each held a flower lantern in one hand and a fan in the other, riding on bamboo frames shaped like paper horses. They moved gracefully through the stage, weaving in and out of the floral decorations while singing and dancing—a style that closely resembled the early folk flower-lantern dances of the Han Chinese tradition. Over time, narrative storylines gradually began to emerge, though these plots remained somewhat disconnected from the dancers' movements. As a result, performers often relied on rhythmic drumming and gong beats to guide their step-by-step choreography: advancing three paces, retreating three paces, and so forth. Moreover, due to the relatively low literacy levels among Dai actors at the time, they struggled to memorize their lines. To compensate, masters would quietly prompt them from behind the stage, word by word. Consequently, onstage, actors frequently found themselves either singing without dancing—or dancing without fully engaging in the choreography, let alone delivering spoken dialogue. This simple, rustic performance style allowed anyone in the Dai community who could both dance and sing to step onto the stage and indulge in their passion for theater. In essence, the audience became the actors, and the actors, in turn, embodied the spirit of the audience. Later, influenced by Peking Opera and Dian Opera, Dai opera began incorporating instrumental accompaniment, placing greater emphasis on plot development and refined character movements. At the same time, the performances were enhanced with costumes and makeup tailored to ethnic traditions, complemented by carefully designed stage sets. Musically, in addition to traditional Dai melodies like the *Twelve Horse Tune*, *Gan Pai Tune*, *Peacock Song*, and *Duanli Mountain Ballad*, the repertoire also absorbed vocal styles from Peking Opera and Dian Opera—specifically those associated with roles such as *laosheng* (old male roles), *xiaosheng* (young male roles), and *dan* (female roles). Over time, these influences coalesced into a new musical foundation, with the original Dai tunes now serving primarily as supplementary vocal elements rather than the mainstay of the performance.

In the process of absorbing influences from shadow puppetry, Peking Opera, and Dian Opera, Dai opera naturally began adapting and performing Han Chinese opera repertoire as well—such as plays based on the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, and stories about the Xue family, along with classics like "The Legend of the White Snake" and "Willow Shade." The first individual to undertake this adaptation was Dao Ruan'an, an official at the local chieftain's office during the Qing Daoguang period. He translated shadow puppet plays related to the "Investiture of the Gods" into the Dai language and replaced the traditional puppets with live actors. By 1910, the chieftain of Gan Ya (modern-day Yingjiang County) developed a deep appreciation for shadow puppetry, assembling over 30 folk artists to form Dai opera’s earliest professional troupe. To further enhance their skills, he invited Han Chinese folk performers to teach and demonstrate the art forms of Peking Opera and Dian Opera, which significantly contributed to the development of Dai opera troupes and the refinement of its performance techniques.

Development

The new historical period for Dai opera began after the founding of New China. In 1960, Dai artists reformed Dai opera with a fresh artistic vision, recreating repertoire pieces and introducing a directorial system. As a result, stage performances became more standardized, vocal styles grew richer and more diverse, culminating in the successful production of "E'nu and Sangluo."

When Dai opera was revived in 1980, the focus was on correcting the tendency toward Han Chinese-style theatrical elements in Dai performances—such as rigidly adopting Dian Opera’s gongs, drums, and costumes—and instead emphasizing and highlighting the unique ethnic characteristics of Dai drama. This transformation helped establish Dai opera as a vibrant and dazzling symbol of the Dai people’s cultural heritage, proudly blossoming at their festive gatherings and community events.

In 1987, the Dai Opera made its first international appearance, performing in Myanmar. Each show drew over 10,000 spectators, creating an unprecedentedly grand spectacle.

In 1992, the first group of Dai opera students went to study at the Beijing Opera School; today, these graduates have become the new generation carrying forward the art of Dai theater. They adapted and performed "Re Ximluo" based on the classic tale "Stealing the Immortal Herb," adding dynamic fight scenes to the traditionally song- and dance-focused genre of Dai opera. Amidst a slump in performances of mainstream Han Chinese traditional operas, Dai opera continues to thrive in Dehong, reaching every corner of the region and earning widespread acclaim from the local Dai community.